Question

Сравните развитие сельского хозяйства на западе и на востоке Европы в XVI-XVIII в. 1. Как изменялись в XVI-XVII вв. цены на сельскохозяйственную продукцию? 2. Насколько государство нуждалось в военной службе дворян и зависело от них? 3. Было ли ориентировано сельское хозяйство на вывоз или ввоз зерна? 4. Какими способами землевладельцы стремились повысить свои доходы? 5. Как повлияли перемены на развитие сельского хозяйства? Началась ли в результате этого аграрная революция? 6. Как изменилось положение крестьян?

Answer 1

Общие черты, характерные для развития сельского хозяйства на западе и востоке Европы в 16-17 веках. Большее распространение в Европе в XVI- XVII вв. получили передовые для своего времени системы землепользования. Если к началу периода XI—XV вв. во многих странах Европы всё ещё часто встречались подсечная, переложная система и двухполье, то в  XVI- XVII вв. везде, за исключением самых северных стран, они вытесняются трёхпольем. В наиболее развитых земледельческих районах в XVI в. наблюдается уже переход к ещё более совершенным системам землепользования — многополью и травосеянию по пару. Также, в крестьянских хозяйствах увеличивается количество сельскохозяйственного инвентаря, в частности, в связи с успехами металлургии возрастает число металлических орудий и улучшается их качество.

Answer 2

Development of Agriculture in Western and Eastern Europe in the 16th-18th Centuries

1. Changes in Agricultural Product Prices in the 16th-17th Centuries: - In the 16th-17th centuries, agricultural product prices in Western and Eastern Europe experienced fluctuations due to various factors such as climate conditions, population growth, and market demand [[1]]. - In Western Europe, the price of agricultural products generally increased during this period due to population growth and expanding urban markets [[2]]. - In Eastern Europe, the price of agricultural products also increased, but at a slower pace compared to Western Europe. This was partly due to less developed markets and limited urbanization [[3]].

2. Dependence on Nobility for Military Service: - During the 16th-18th centuries, the states in both Western and Eastern Europe relied heavily on the nobility for military service. - In Western Europe, the nobility played a significant role in the military, often serving as officers in the armies of their respective countries [[4]]. - In Eastern Europe, the nobility's role in the military was even more pronounced. The nobles formed the backbone of the armies and were responsible for providing troops and military leadership [[5]].

3. Orientation of Agriculture: Export or Import of Grain: - The orientation of agriculture in Western and Eastern Europe varied during the 16th-18th centuries. - In Western Europe, agricultural production was primarily oriented towards domestic consumption and supplying growing urban populations. While some grain was exported, it was not the primary focus of agricultural production [[6]]. - In Eastern Europe, particularly in regions like Poland and Russia, agriculture was more oriented towards grain production for export. These regions became major exporters of grain to Western Europe and other markets [[7]].

4. Methods Employed by Landowners to Increase Income: - Landowners in both Western and Eastern Europe employed various methods to increase their income during the 16th-18th centuries. - In Western Europe, landowners focused on improving agricultural productivity through the adoption of new farming techniques, such as crop rotation and enclosure systems. They also sought to increase profits by diversifying their agricultural activities and investing in new technologies [[8]]. - In Eastern Europe, landowners aimed to increase their income by expanding the size of their estates through the acquisition of more land and the consolidation of smaller holdings. They also sought to maximize profits by utilizing serf labor and implementing more efficient farming methods [[9]].

5. Impact of Changes on Agricultural Development and the Agrarian Revolution: - The changes in agriculture during the 16th-18th centuries had a significant impact on its development. - The adoption of new farming techniques, increased productivity, and the expansion of agricultural markets contributed to the growth of agricultural production and the emergence of a more commercialized agriculture in both Western and Eastern Europe [[10]]. - However, the changes did not lead to a full-fledged agrarian revolution in the traditional sense. The agrarian revolution, characterized by a fundamental transformation in agricultural practices and productivity, occurred later during the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries [[11]].

6. Changes in the Peasants' Status: - The position of peasants varied in Western and Eastern Europe during the 16th-18th centuries. - In Western Europe, the status of peasants generally improved as a result of economic growth and social changes. Some peasants were able to acquire land and gain more control over their agricultural activities [[12]]. - In Eastern Europe, particularly in regions with serfdom, the situation of peasants was more challenging. Serfs were tied to the land and subject to the control of the nobility, limiting their social mobility and economic opportunities [[13]].

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