Question

Nature thoughtfully provided our earliest ancestors with a simple aid of computation — a digital computer in the strictest sense of the word — copies of which may be seen in active use in any school-room where the youngest generation is counting on its fingers. In making this provision, nature unwittingly established the decimal base, with its 10 digit values as a natural mode in which the human race might express its numerical ideals. In the beginning — to borrow a phrase — there was the abacus. This little device came into, being some 2,000 years ago and still is the most widely used calculator on earth. In some areas of the world it is the only known counting device. The word calculation itself comes from the earliest form of abacus which consisted of lines drawn on the ground, with small limestone pebbles to represent numbers. The Latin word calcis means lime or limestone and the Latin word calculus, which grew out of it, first meant a small piece of limestone and later was expanded to mean any pebble used in counting. The abacus (from abax, an ancient Greek word for slab) was a direct result of early efforts to count. When primitive man satisfied his need for food and shelter, he began seeking ways of expressing himself. His first writings were the rudimentary drawings on cave walls, the notches on the trees. The earliest were simply representations of what we find in nature — the sun, the moon, the animals he hunted. Soon, however, he wanted to express how many animals he had killed in a hunt, how many children he had, and .so forth. Such was the development of symbols to indicate one, several, and nuiny. The next step was a big one — devising symbols to express specific quantities. The first two were, quite naturally, a two and a five; two because man had two hands, five because he had five fingers. And by combining the symbols for hands and fingers, he could express many different specific quantities. In such unprofessorial way man took his first plunge into the mathematical world and came up with a revolutionary concept — how to count. For then man acquired a scientific tool with which he could break up the universe into its component units and thus master the size and shape of things. - The numbers now in use are of comparatively recent origin, not more than a thousand years. They are known as HinduArabic figures, because they originated in India and were introduced to Europe by the Arabs. The abacus makes use of this two-five or biquinary notation system. The abacus is a most remarkable instrument — a computer of great ingenuity capable of being made with the simplest tools. But the abacus has its shortcomings — otherwise we'd all still be using it. It cannot carry over tens from one line to another and the counting of beads is the basis for addition and subtraction only. As man constantly expanded his mathematical horizons this became an increasingly vexatious problem. / Nevertheless, the elementary basis of operation of any digital computer, however complex, is the same as that of the old-fashioned abacus. ASSIGNMENTS I. Comprehension questions: I. What is the simplest way of computation? 2. Is finger counting practised in our times? 3. Where does the decimal base of numeration come from? 4. What did the limestone pebbles represent in counting? 5. What is the etymology of the term calculation? 6. What is the origin of the word abacus? 7. What lies in the basis of two-five system of numeration? 8. Who invented numbers and introduced them to Europe? II. Discussion questions: 1. Why do the people use the abacus in the time of scientific and technological progress? 2. Did nature provide man only with a decimal base of numeration? 3. How does the abacus function? 4. How did the first mathematical symbols come into existence? 5. What are the shortcomings of the abacus? 6. What have abacus and computer in common? 7. What do we call the abacus's native sister in Ukrainian?

Answer 1

I. What is the simplest way of computation?

Answer: The simplest way of computationa is a digital computer in the

strictest sense of the word

2. Is finger counting practised in our times?

Answer: Yes,it is in active use in any school-room.

3. Where does the decimal base of numeration come from?

Answer: Nature unwittingly established the decimal base, with its

10 digit values as a natural mode in which the human race

might express its numerical ideals.

4. What did the limestone pebbles represent in counting?

Answer: to represent numbers

5. What is the etymology of the term calculation?

Answer: The word calculation itself comes from the earliest form

of abacus which consisted of lines drawn on the ground,

with small limestone pebbles to represent numbers.

6. What is the origin of the word abacus?

Answer: The abacus (from abax, an ancient Greek word for slab).

7. What lies in the basis of two-five system of numeration?

Answer: Devising symbols to express specific quantities. The first two were, quite naturally, a two and a five; two because man had two hands, five because he had five fingers.

8. Who invented numbers and introduced them to Europe?

Answer: they originated in India and were introduced to Europe by the Arabs.

II. Discussion questions:

1. Why do the people use the abacus in the time of scientific and technological progress? - people use it as a physical aid to keep track of the sums, the carrys, etc

2. Did nature provide man only with a decimal base of numeration?

3. How does the abacus function? - it is a calculation tool used by sliding counters along rods or grooves, used to perform mathematical functions.

4. How did the first mathematical symbols come into existence?  - they were signs for the depiction of numbers — ciphers, the appearance of which apparently preceded the introduction of written language.

5. What are the shortcomings of the abacus?

6. What have abacus and computer in common?

7. What do we call the abacus's native sister in Ukrainian?

Answer 2

It seems like you've provided a passage that discusses the historical development of counting and computation, focusing on the abacus as an early form of a digital computer. The passage touches upon the origins of numerical notation, the use of symbols to represent quantities, and the transition from simple counting to more complex mathematical operations.

In summary:

1. Early Counting and Numerical Notation: Primitive humans began by expressing themselves through drawings and notches, and as they progressed, they needed to represent quantities, such as animals hunted or children born. This led to the development of symbols for numbers, starting with simple representations like hands and fingers.

2. Abacus: The abacus, a simple counting device with beads that can be moved along lines, was a significant step in early computation. It used a two-five or biquinary notation system, based on the symbols for hands and fingers, to represent quantities.

3. Limitations of the Abacus: While the abacus was ingenious and effective for basic arithmetic like addition and subtraction, it had limitations. It couldn't handle carrying over tens from one place to another, which became problematic as mathematics evolved.

4. Hindu-Arabic Numerals: The current number system in use, known as Hindu-Arabic numerals, originated in India and were introduced to Europe by the Arabs. These numerals made complex calculations much more efficient, as they allowed for easy representation of large numbers.

5. Evolution of Digital Computers: The passage concludes by noting that despite its limitations, the abacus shares fundamental principles with modern digital computers. The basic concept of breaking down complex operations into smaller units remains consistent.

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